Kelvin probe force microscopy under ambient conditions

Published

August 21, 2025

Author(s)

Amirhossein Zahmatkeshsaredorahi, Ruben Millan-Solsona, Devon Jakob, Liam Collins, Xiaoji Xu

Abstract

Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KPFM), a technique derived from Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), provides nanometer-scale spatial resolution for mapping surface potential or work function differences across material systems. It serves as a powerful tool for investigating electrical phenomena such as dipole orientation, interfacial charge transfer, charge accumulation, band bending and doping levels. This primer aims to provide an overview of typical ambient condition KPFMs, covering its underlying principles, experimental implementations, and wide-ranging applications. Key KPFM variants, including amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, heterodyne detection schemes, as well as innovative open loop and pulsed force techniques, are discussed, with practical guidance provided on optimizing signal acquisition and reducing errors. Specialized approaches, such as time-resolved KPFM and multimodal KPFM, are discussed for their ability to capture dynamic charge processes and chemical information, respectively. We highlight recent advances in KPFM applications, spanning metal alloys, soft matter, ferroelectrics, photovoltaics, and 2D materials, showcasing its versatility across research domains. By addressing current limitations and identifying future opportunities, this primer underscores the transformative potential of KPFM in advancing the understanding of nanoscale electrical phenomena.

Citation

Nature Reviews Methods Primers

Volume

5

Issue

1

Pub Type

Journals

Download Paper

https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-025-00424-9

Local Download

Citation

Zahmatkeshsaredorahi, A. , Millan-Solsona, R. , Jakob, D. , Collins, L. and Xu, X. (2025), Kelvin probe force microscopy under ambient conditions, Nature Reviews Methods Primers, [online], https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-025-00424-9, https://tsapps.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=959554 (Accessed October 8, 2025)